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Depth effects of long-term organic residue application on soil organic carbon stocks in central Kenya
(UoEm, 2025-06-17) Müller, Claude Raoul; Six, Johan; Njiru, Daniel Mugendi; Vanlauwe, Bernard; Broek, Marijn Van de;
In arable soils, a substantial portion of soil organic carbon (SOC) is stored below the plough layer. To develop sustainable soil management strategies, it is important to assess how they affect the quantity of SOC stored in the subsoil. Therefore, we investigated the impact of organic and inorganic nutrient inputs on SOC stocks down to 70 cm depth in a long-term field trial in Embu, Kenya. There were three organic input treatments (manure, Tithonia diversifolia residues, and maize stover) and a control treatment, each with and without the application of mineral nitrogen. These different treatments were applied to a maize monoculture over 38 growing seasons (19 years). Our results show that manure application had the largest positive impact on SOC stocks compared to the control; this effect was observed down to 60 cm depth. In contrast, Tithonia diversifolia and maize stover application led to significantly larger SOC stocks compared to the control, although this was only within the top 20 cm and 40 cm, respectively. Among the three organic residue treatments, only the application of manure had a significant effect on the SOC stock of the subsoil (i.e. the 30–70 cm depth layer). However, when considering the whole measured profile (i.e. 0–70 cm), all treatments led to significantly higher SOC stocks compared to the 91 ± 12 t C ha−1 of the control: manure had the highest stocks (120 ± 24 t C ha−1), followed by maize stover (112 ± 17 t C ha−1) and Tithonia diversifolia (105 ± 11 t C ha−1). Mineral nitrogen application did not have a significant impact on SOC stocks down to 70 cm depth. Our findings demonstrate that SOC in the subsoil comprised 48.5 % ± 1.7 % of the total SOC stocks across the 0–70 cm soil profile; however, only manure application affected subsoil OC levels, whereas other organic amendments solely increased SOC in the surface layer. Our results imply that gathering knowledge on the soil below the typically studied 0–30 cm depth layer will improve the overall assessment of agroecosystem properties, which is necessary to optimize soil system resilience, limit organic matter losses, and improve crop productivity.
Exploring The Mutuality Between Religious Leadership and Community Engagement in Enhancing Livelihoods Among Rural Communities Embu, Kenya
(UoEm, 2025-06) Mutugi, Jessee; Mwaniki, Silas Maina
In rural Embu County, Kenya, where poverty and limited access to resources pose significant challenges to
sustainable livelihoods, religious institutions serve as vital pillars of social, spiritual, and economic support. This
research project, titled "Exploring the Mutuality Between Religious Leadership and Community Engagement in
Enhancing Livelihoods Among Rural Communities in Embu, Kenya," investigated the synergistic relationship
between religious leadership and community engagement in fostering socio-economic development. By leveraging
the influential role of religious leaders and the participatory power of community engagement, the study sought
to uncover how their mutual interaction can drive transformative livelihood outcomes in rural settings. Employing
a mixed-methods approach, the research integrated qualitative methods—such as key informant interviews and
focus group discussions with religious leaders, community members, and stakeholders—with quantitative
household surveys to assess socio-economic impacts. The study focused on four rural sub-counties in Embu
(Mbeere South, Mbeere North, Runyenjes, and Manyatta), targeting a diverse sample of 200 participants,
including religious leaders from various denominations, community members involved in livelihood initiatives,
and representatives from local government and NGOs. The research objectives were fourfold: to evaluate the role
of religious leaders in promoting community engagement, to identify effective forms of community participation
that align with religious leadership, to measure the socio-economic outcomes of their collaboration, and to explore
challenges and opportunities in strengthening this mutuality. The findings highlight how religious leaders mobilize
communities for initiatives such as agricultural cooperatives, savings groups, and skill-building programs, while
community engagement enhances ownership and sustainability of these efforts. The study will contribute to
academic discourse on religion and development, offering actionable insights for policymakers, development
practitioners, and religious institutions to design inclusive, sustainable interventions that alleviate poverty and
enhance livelihoods in rural Embu and similar contexts across Sub-Saharan Africa. By illuminating the dynamics
of this partnership, the research underscores the potential of faith-based frameworks to catalyze community-
driven development in resource-constrained environments.
Physicochemical and Heavy Metal Characterization of River Kapingazi in Embu County, Kenya
(UoEm, 2025-07-04) Yego, Naomy Chepkirui; Nyambane, Charles Onyari; Yegon, Rebbecca; Kiprotich, Shadrack
Surface water provides crucial support to the aquatic ecosystem and humans in numerous ways. However, its
quality is paramount in determining its impact on the health of the aquatic ecosystem and humans. Currently, the
malady of pollution arising from anthropogenic activities poses a significant threat to the quality of most rivers. The
quality of water in the Kapingazi river in Embu County has received limited attention which is a concern that needs
to be addressed. This study therefore, sought to investigate the status of water quality in river Kapingazi. The study
analyzed 96 samples from four locations in a span of eight months which combined the dry and wet seasons of the year.
Parameters measured in-situ included turbidity, pH, total dissolved solids (TDS), temperature, dissolved oxygen (DO)
and electrical conductivity (EC) while ex-situ parameters were phosphates, nitrates and concentrations of heavy metals:
iron and manganese. Results showed that Water Quality Index (WQI) during the drought period was74.05, suggesting
that the water quality is only recommended for agricultural and industrial applications. During wet season, the water
quality index was 89.67, reflecting a poor status, as more contaminants were likely introduced through surface runoff.
Overall, the WQI averaged to 88.02. This study concludes that water in River Kapingazi is not suitable for human
consumption; therefore, appropriate treatment is essential prior to its use. Similarly, the findings indicate that both
rainy and drought periods significantly affect water quality, presenting challenges for its use for various purposes. It
is recommended that the allocation of resources towards water treatment facilities and regulation of pollution sources
should be enforced to ensure the safety of river water for diverse applications
Assessment of fodder conservation in smallholder dairy farming systems in highland and midlands of eastern Kenya
(UoEm, 2025-06-03) Kogo, Thomas Kipchoge
GENERAL ABSTRACT
The dairy industry is important for its contribution to the living standard of people,
industries, foreign exchange and 4% of the total GDP in Kenya. Productivity of 7.8
liters/cow/day is low and attributed to poor feeding and contribution to high emission of
greenhouse gases (GHGs). Fodder scarcity poses a challenge to the achievement of high
productivity, while mitigation of fodder scarcity through fodder conservation remains
low. Despite common challenges, farms perform differently, in different farm locations
with some farms, also called positive deviants (PDs) conserving adequate fodder. In the
highlands and midlands of eastern Kenya, information on fodder conservation among
smallholder dairy farming systems is limited. The adoption levels and the intensity of
fodder conservation technologies including silage and hay, factors affecting the adoption
and use of such technologies in (peri-) urban locations and strategies used by PDs in
fodder conservation are unknown. Therefore, the study sought to assess fodder
conservation technologies among smallholder dairy farming systems in the highlands and
midlands of Tharaka-Nithi County, Kenya. Specifically: to determine factors affecting
the adoption intensity of fodder conservation. To determine factors of fodder conservation
technologies adoption in urban and peri-urban areas. To determine strategies that
distinguish PDs from peers (non-PDs) in fodder conservation. A cross-sectional survey
was conducted on smallholder dairy farms producing and conserving fodder in Tharaka
Nithi County. Multistage sampling procedures were used: purposive sampling of the Sub-
counties and locations, random selection of villages and proportional selection of 242
farms through snowball chain referral. The questionnaire was used to collect information,
which included: household socio-demographics, husbandry practices, farm
characteristics and fodder conservation characteristics. Two towns were chosen
purposively to represent urban locations i.e. Chuka (UL, n=68) and peri-urban locations
Chogoria (PUL, n=93) in Chuka and Maara Sub-Counties respectively (Total n=161), due
to the relatively high number of urban dwellers. Additionally, the PDs (n=24) conserved
fodder adequate to last the dry season and had a milk yield of ≥15 kg/cow/day. While
non-PDs (n=97) do not qualify for both criterion as farms qualifying for one criteria were
discarded. Multiple regression analysis was applied to explain the quantity of fodder
conserved. The Multivariate Regression (MVR) model was used to identify and estimate
simultaneously the determinants of fodder conservation technologies adoption. Logit
regression was used to examine variables that influence the probability of PDs. The study
found that most farms were headed by older males who had basic education. Fodder was
scarce during the dry season in most farms. Fodder conserved included; silage was
conserved in the least number of farms only 26%, but the highest in the quantity of fodder
conserved (13 tons); hay was conserved in 40% of the farms, but the quantity conserved
was the least (2 tons); crop residue storage was the major conserved fodder by 85% of the
farms and the quantity conserved was 5 tons. Quantities of fodder conserved were
affected by land size, herd size, duration planned to use conserved fodder, main fodder
source during scarcity and the fodder conservation technologies used (silage and hay).
Quantities of silage and hay conserved were higher in urban location (UL) than in peri-
urban locations (PUL) farms. Crop residue storage was conserved more in non-PD farms,
especially in PUL farms. Fodder conserved in UL and PUL was influenced by farm
location, land size, herd size, total milk yield per farm, sex, source of fodder during feed
scarcity, extension services, period the current stock is expected to last, use of concentrate
feeds and breed kept. Access to extension services, milk yield, land size, land under
xivfodder, period to use conserved fodder, total herd size, and different combinations of
fodder conservation technologies differ between PDs and non-PDs. PDs in fodder
conservation are favored by a high level of education, access to extension services, large
land, herd size and high milk yield. The study shows knowledge production resources and
technology used as important in fodder conservation. Recommended mitigation measures
target more education on fodder conservation technologies as well as increasing the
adoption of improved fodder production. Knowledge advancement of farmers and
policymakers through education and extension increases milk production. Therefore,
policymakers can focus on creating enabling policies that promote the adoption of
improved technologies as used by PDs to support fodder production and conservation to
improve productivity and inform the direction of future research.
Modelling transmission dynamics of typhoid fever with fear of infection and vaccination in Kenya
(UoEm, 2025-06-03) Wangui, Jackline Wanjiku
Despite the great advancements in healthcare systems and sanitary improvements
globally, sub-Saharan Africa including Kenya bears a significant burden of infectious
diseases, among which typhoid fever continues to exert a notable toll. In this study, we
developed a deterministic mathematical model to examine the interplay between
human responses driven by the psychological factor of fear of infection, vaccination
efforts, and the dynamics of human-to-human and environmental transmission of
typhoid fever. The mathematical model was analyzed using theories of first-order
ordinary differential equations to establish the existence of equilibrium points and their
conditions for local and global stability. The reproduction number, R0 , was established
and distinct pathways for the transmission of infection were identified, shedding light
on the crucial interactions among key population groups fueling the spread of typhoid
fever disease. The model results suggest that, typhoid fever infection is heightened by
both direct and indirect contact with infected individuals and contaminated
environments. Additionally, lack or limited awareness contributes to decreased fear of
infection and reluctance towards vaccination, further exacerbating the situation.
Moreover, an increase in environmental transmission is observed due to elevated
discharge rates from infected individuals. This study contributes valuable insights into
the design of effective mitigation strategies aimed at combating typhoid fever in
resource-limited settings