Master Theses: Department of Agricultural Economics and Extension

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Adoption, Productivity and Return on Investment of Integrated Soil Fertility Management Technologies among Sorghum Farmers in Tharaka-Nithi County, Kenya
(UoEm, 2024-09) Kiprotich, Shadrack
Declining soil fertility poses a serious threat to food production and food security to most farming households. Integrated Soil Fertility Management (ISFM) comprising the combination of organic and mineral fertilizer and other practices such as cereal-legume intercropping, diversified crop rotation and farmers’ knowledge has been promoted in various countries in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) including Kenya. This study aimed at evaluating adoption, productivity and return to investment of ISFM technologies among sorghum farmers in Tharaka-Nithi County, Kenya. Cross-sectional data was obtained from a sample of 370 sorghum farmers through multistage stratified random sampling technique. The study employed a semi-structured questionnaire that was administered to the respondents to obtain relevant data. The SPSS and STATA softwares were used to analyze data and results presented using descriptive and inferential statistics. Cragg`s Double Hurdle model was used to assess the influence of socioeconomic and institutional factors on the adoption intensity of ISFM technologies among sorghum farmers. Propensity Score Matching (PSM) and (Inverse Probability Weighting Regression) IPWRA models were applied in determining the effect of selected ISFM technologies on sorghum productivity among farmers. Budgetary technique was used to evaluate return on investment while Endogenous switching regression (ESR) model was used in determining the effect of selected ISFM technologies on return on investment (ROI) of sorghum. The results revealed that gender, dependents, farming goal for subsistence purpose, decision on information use, farm size, extension services, research awareness, ISFM awareness and ISFM access, significantly affected household decision on adoption of ISFM technologies. On the other hand, gender of household head, farm size, main source of agricultural information and formal agricultural training had significant influence on adoption intensity of ISFM technologies. The first stage results of PSM shows that extension services and ISFM awareness was significant in influencing adoption of the ISFM technologies positively while farming goal for subsistence, decision on information use and cost of ISFM affected adoption negatively. The second stage determined average treatment effect on adopters of ISFM and the results was 1.268, 1.120 and 1.192 bags of sorghum for nearest neighbor, kernel based and radius matches respectively. The results reveal that farmers who use ISFM technologies would produce 4.696 bags of sorghum compared to 1.424 bags obtained from not using the technologies. The expected ROI of farmers growing sorghum under ISFM technologies was reported to be 1.945 while that of non-adopters was 0.783. Based on the counterfactual outcomes ROI would have was 2.409 for adopters and 0.734 for non-adopters. It was therefore concluded that socio-economic and institutional characteristics continue to influence the choice to adopt ISFM technologies. The performance of adopted technologies on productivity and returns on investment as well remains high compared to non-adoption. There is a thus a crucial need for integration of determinants surrounding adoption and adoption intensity of ISFM technologies in policy making and planning processes to enhance decision on pro-adoption, which will improve sorghum productivity and returns in Tharaka-Nithi County.
Factors Affecting Adoption and Effect of Irrigation Technologies on Productivity and Profitability among Small-scale Farmers in Machakos County, Kenya
(Mary Muluki Kithome, 2022-09) Kithome, Mary Muluki
Agricultural productivity has been significantly impacted by climate change and variability. Because of their reliance on rain-fed agriculture Kenya's small-scale farmers have been severely impacted by the climate change negative effects. The productivity and profitability of crop and livestock production, as well as rural livelihoods in general, have been impacted by erratic rainfall and temperature increases. Irrigated agriculture must therefore be used as a strategy for adaptation to lessen these effects. The goal of the study was to identify the factors affecting use and effect of irrigation technology among small-scale farmers in Machakos County. A multi-stage sample strategy was used to interview 300 farming households selected randomly in order to achieve these objectives. To examine the households’ socioeconomic attributes, descriptive statistics (frequency and percentages) were employed. Additionally, inferential statistics comprising of probit model, and Heckman two stage regression model were used to examine factors that were related with adoption and intensity of adoption. According to the findings, 31.7% of the respondents used irrigation. In the research area, furrow, drip, and basin approaches were the most widely used technologies. Furthermore, the findings revealed that (91.78%) and (75.61%) of both adopters and non-adopters were men respectively with a mean age of (48) years. The findings revealed that gender, level of education, primary occupation, farm size, off-farm income, labor, access to extension services, and credit access were significant factors affecting irrigation technology adoption and intensity of adoption. Results from PSM revealed that, the average contribution of irrigation to crop yield improvement ranged from 225kg to 258kg per acre as compared to non-irrigation adopters. Results from the endogenous treatment model demonstrated that farmers who used irrigation technologies received on average KES 40,696.70 more compared to non-irrigation adopters. The research recommends that, the government and relevant key parties promote the adoption of small-scale irrigation technologies in rural areas, improve access to extension services, increase access to agricultural loans, and provide other essential services such as subsidization of certified seed and fertilizer costs in order to realize improved agricultural productivity while mitigating the impacts of seasonal variations and changes in climate.
Market efficiency, choice of marketing channel and supply of macadamia among small holder farmers in embu west sub-county
(Kelvin Murimi Nthiga, 2024-08)
In Kenya horticulture contributes greatly to the economy and particularly nuts play a crucial role in income generation with macadamia production been ranked among the top enterprises. The crop leads to job creation and acts as an income incentive to smallholder farmers. Despite its potential in the Kenyan economy, macadamia production has not been fully exploited resulting from a weak link between extension and farmers. This has occasionally translated to low market efficiency, farmers participating in low rewarding channels and farmers producing low yield. The study provides insight on market efficiency, choice of marketing channel and quantity of macadamia supplied to the market. The study was guided by three objectives; to assess selected institutional and socio-economic factors that affect market efficiency, to determine selected market and socio-economic factors that influence participation in various marketing channels and to assess socio-economic factors that affect the quantity of macadamia supplied to the market. The study provides information on most profitable marketing channels available to farmers. Data used in the study was collected using a structured questionnaire from 337 smallholder macadamia farmers who were selected randomly in Embu West Sub-County using stratified multistage random sampling technique. The study was guided by the Supply theory and Random Utility theory to explain how farmers made decision to participate in a channel and supply macadamia. A cross sectional survey design was adopted in the study. In assessing the institutional and socio-economic factors that affect market efficiency, the study adopted the stochastic frontier production function analysis. In determining selected market and socio-economic factors that influence choice of a marketing channel the study used the multinomial logit regression model and to assess the socio-economic factors that influence the quantity of macadamia supplied to the market the study adopted the multivariate multiple regression model. The findings revealed that the mean of market efficiency was 8.15 %, broker channel 48.1% was the most preferred channel and farmers supplied an average of 128.37 kilograms. The findings of this study provide information to sectors involved and policy makers and recommends on the need to put feasible strategies such as increasing extension and setting more collection centers for profitable channels to enable farmers fetch higher returns from macadamia farming.
Participatory Evaluation of Spacing and Intercropping on Productivity of Bambara Groundnuts and Sorghum in Embu County, Kenya.
(Elizaphan Mboi Ombasa, 2024-08) Ombasa, Elizaphan Mboi
Bambara groundnut (Vigna subterranea L. Verdc) is underutilised in Kenya, and little is known on its best agronomic practices in various agroecological zones. The objective of this study was to determine the influence of spacing and intercropping on the productivity of Bambara groundnut and sorghum in Embu County using a farmer-participatory approach. Two separate experiments were conducted in three sites in Mbeere North, Mbeere South and Embu West, sub-counties of Embu County. The experimental design was a randomized complete block design replicated thrice in each site. The experiments were conducted in two seasons: during the short rains (October – December 2019) and long rains (March-May 2020). The first experiment was to determine the optimum spacing of Bambara groundnut, where the main plot treatments were three landraces, namely BG 001, BG 003 and BG 005. The treatments were three population densities: S1 = 50 cm x 20 cm, S2 = 50 cm x 30 cm, S3 = 50 cm x 40 cm. Data was taken on Bambara plant spread, leaf area index, number of branches per plant, the weight of grains per plant, number of pods per plant, length of pods, number of seeds per pod, 100 grain mass, and total dry weight land equivalent ratio. The second experiment assessed the effect of intercropping of Bambara groundnuts with sorghum on sorghum productivity. The treatments included T1 -monocrop sorghum spaced at 60 cm x 20 cm, T2 - monocrop Bambara groundnut spaced at 50 cm x 20 cm, T3 - sorghum with one row of Bambara groundnut intercrop 120 cm x 15 cm with legume residues removed after harvest and T4 - Sorghum with one row of Bambara groundnut intercrop 120 cm x 15 cm with legume residues incorporated into the soil. Local farmers were involved in data collection through organized farmers’ field schools to enable them to make informed adoption decisions. The participants were sampled using a multistage spatially stratified random sampling design. Sorghum data was taken: panicle length, weight, 100 grain mass and total yield per plant. The third study assessed the smallholder farmers' willingness to adopt the best agronomic practices of Bambara groundnut; the study involved 384 small-scale farmers sampled from the farmers’ field school participants from the three sites. The respondents were interviewed using a structured questionnaire. The agronomic data from the first and second experiments was subjected to a three-way analysis of variance, and treatment means were separated using Tukey’s Honestly Significant Difference at 95% confidence level. The socioeconomic data was subjected to descriptive statistics, including means, frequencies and percentages, using SPSS. The study concluded that spacing of 50 cm x 20 cm was optimum with the highest yield of 6.02 ton ha-1 among the three landraces of Bambara groundnut tested with landrace BG 001 recording the highest total grain yields of 4.49 ton ha-1. Intercropping sorghum with Bambara groundnut residues removed and intercropping sorghum with Bambara groundnut residues incorporated into the soil recorded land equivalent ratio greater than 1, indicating yield advantage over sorghum and Bambara groundnut monocrops which recorded land equivalent ratio less than 1. The proportion of farmers who showed willingness to adopt the best agronomic practices of Bambara groundnut production was 60.94%. The study recommended growing landrace BG 001 of Bambara groundnut at a spacing of 50 cm x 20 cm in the study area and other areas with similar agroecology. The study recommends intercropping sorghum between two rows of Bambara groundnuts since it resulted in higher sorghum yields with 3.74 mg ha-1.
Uptake of Regenerative Agriculture Technologies, Productivity of Selected Cereals And Pulses and Food Security in the Drylands of Embu County, Kenya
(UoEm, 2023-08) Otara, Elvin Nyaboe
At the global level, land degradation is on the increase thus threatening millions of livelihoods particularly in the drier ecosystems. More specifically, land degradation is a major concern in Kenya and more particularly in the drylands of Embu County. Soil fertility has been steadily declining, resulting in low agricultural output and endangering smallholder farmers who rely mostly on subsistence agriculture for a living. Selecting appropriate Regenerative Agriculture (RA) technologies in accordance with well-established policies can help construct more resilient ecosystems, increase productivity and family food security while nourishing soils and lessening the effects of climate change. Although RA has been marketed in Embu drylands, the extent of uptake has not been assessed. The potential effects of RA technologies on cereal (sorghum) and pulse (green grams) productivity and family food security have received little attention. The study aimed to characterize RA technologies and identify factors impacting adoption. The study also assessed the effects of RA technologies on the productivity of selected cereals and pulses as well as household food security in Embu County's drylands. A multistage stratified sampling procedure was used to select 400 farming households at random. Data were obtained via Open Data Kit using cross-sectional survey and a semi-structured questionnaire. The Principal Component Analysis (PCA) was used to characterize RA technologies. RA technology adoption factors were evaluated using Multivariate Probit Model (MVP). The effect of RA technologies on the productivity of selected cereal and pulse was examined using a stochastic log-linearized Cobb-Douglas Production Function. Household Food Consumption Score (HFCS) was employed to gauge household food security. According to the PCA results, the most often employed RA technologies by the respondents were cereal-legume intercrop, pasture cropping, crop rotations, mulching, cover crops, use of compost manure, and minimum tillage. The percentage of respondents employed the following RA methods, according to descriptive data, were: cereal-legume intercrop (71.3%), pasture cropping (72.0%), crop rotations (96.0%), mulching (76.3%), cover crops (14.5%), application of compost manure (24.0%), and minimal tillage (31.5%). Further, from descriptive statistics, the results showed that all adopted technologies had poor uptake. The respondents’ biggest struggles with RA were a lack of education and bad weather conditions. In light of the results of the Multivariate Probit Model, socioeconomic and institutional factors, significantly impact on the uptake of various RA technologies. In addition, Cobb-Douglas Production Function revealed that cereal-legume intercropping, mulching, and the use of compost manure positively influenced green gram and sorghum productivity, minimum tillage and cover cropping positively influenced sorghum productivity, and crop rotations positively influenced green gram productivity. Furthermore, the HFCS showed that most of the households in the research region were food insecure, with those who used minimum tillage having the highest (61.1%) poor HFCS and those who practiced cover cropping having the highest acceptable score of 8.6%. The study findings suggest encouraging small-scale farmers to adopt the disseminated technologies by providing training and sensitization on the benefits of these technologies in order to boost agricultural productivity and improve food security in the drylands of Embu County, Kenya, while also regenerating ecosystems in a sustainable manner.
ADOPTION OF RECOMMENDED TECHNOLOGIES ALONG BANANA VALUE CHAIN AND ITS EFFECTS ON PRODUCTIVITY IN EMBU WEST SUB-COUNTY, KENYA
(University of Embu, 2022-08) KATHURI, DOMINIC NTHUKURI
Banana is one of the most important fruits in Kenya as it contributes to about 32% of the foreign income of the total exported fruits. Despite this contribution, banana farming is facing numerous challenges such as lack of clean planting material, pest and diseases and poor agronomic and crop husbandry practices leading to low productivity. The purpose of this study was to evaluate technology adoption along banana value chain and its effects on productivity among smallholder farmers in Embu West Sub-County, Embu County. The study was conducted in four wards of the Sub-County namely Gaturi South, Mbeti North, Kithimu and Kirimari. Data was collected from a sample of 384 small-scale banana farmers who were sampled using multi-stage sampling technique and proportionate to size technique. A structured questionnaire was administered to collect primary data from the respondents. To assess the extent of adoption of recommended banana technologies, descriptive statistics were applied in analysis. The results on the extent of adoption of recommended banana production technologies indicated that 63% of the smallholder farmers were at low level of adoption, 25% medium level of adoption and 12% at high level of adoption. The Cobb Douglas Production Function results indicated that amount of credit, cost of the banana plantlets, fertilizer and manure application had positive significant effects on banana productivity. On the effect of the selected recommended banana production technologies on banana productivity the result indicated that tissue culture, deleafing, use of irrigation, debudding, desuckering and banana value addition practice had positive and significant effects on banana productivity. Multinomial logistic model results indicated that farming experience, labour, extension contact, access to credit and farmers group decreases the likelihood of the farmer being in low and medium adoption level of recommended banana production technologies in favor of the preferred category, while age precipitated a negative effect. The study recommends enhanced sensitization of small-scale banana farmers on the importance of adopting the recommended banana technologies for improved banana yields per unit area.
Economics of the System of Rice Intensification on Productivity of Rice among Smallholder Farmers of Mwea Irrigation Scheme, Kenya
(University of Embu, 2020-11) Kaloi, Francis K.
Rice farming has received considerable attention in developing countries and particularly in Kenya due to its impact on smallholders’ income and food security. Irrigated rice is the largest consumer of water and its sustainability is threatened by water shortage. This has necessitated the development of alternative irrigation water systems that use less water with high yields such as the System of Rice Intensification (SRI). This study sought to evaluate the effects of (SRI) on farm level rice productivity in Mwea Irrigation Scheme. The specific objectives were: to evaluate the determinants of SRI adoption, to determine the factors that influence rice productivity under SRI and Conventional Flooding (CF) and to compare the profitability of SRI and CF. Stratified sampling was used to obtain 364 smallholder rice farmers. A semi-structured questionnaire was administered to these farmers to collect primary data. The results showed that age, farm size, household size, distance from the canal, education, access to credit services, access to extension services, and years spent in rice farming positively and significantly influenced the adoption of SRI. Further, household size, involvement in off-farm work, farmer experience, distance from the canal, access to extension services, credit access and labor use significantly affects rice productivity. The findings further revealed that the returns of SRI were higher by 41,770 compared to CF although it was more labour intensive during critical periods of field operations. The study recommends that the government and other stakeholders should devise strategies to promote adoption of SRI to increase productivity of the rice crop and hence food security locally and nationally. Additionally, the rice farmers to be encouraged by extension service providers to concentrate on formal training, participation in farmers field schools, implementing better farming technology (e.g. SRI) and adoption of appropriate water conservation practices for enhanced productivity. Finally based on the unique circumstances of the farmers, the stakeholders should strive to promote adoption of SRI over CF to improve returns from rice
Technology Adoption, Production and Market Participation among Smallholder Indigenous Chicken Farmers in Tigania West Sub-County, Meru County
(University of Embu, 2021-09) Mathiu, Evans Mwiti
Majority of the Kenyan population resides in rural areas and are characterised by high levels of poverty due to low income and food insecurity. Poultry production and in particular indigenous chicken has been recognised as an avenue to improve livelihoods among rural households through provision of income. Besides, the enterprise contributes to socioeconomic and nutritional requirements of rural and peri-urban populations. Despite this potential, chicken production continues to encounter low and declining production, inadequate uptake of modern innovations and inefficient market structures that are unreliable in forecasting impending trade relations. This has been ascribed to limitation of measures to improve productivity through poultry friendly technologies and provision of necessary market information. Therefore, this study sought to examine adoption, production and market participation among smallholder indigenous poultry farmers in Meru County. The study applied a cross sectional survey design and Tigania West Sub County was selected since it is a leading producer of indigenous chicken in Kenya. Data were collected by administering structured questionnaires to 359 smallholder farmers, who were identified through multistage stratified and probability proportionate to size sampling techniques. Descriptive statistics used to analyse socioeconomic and institutional characteristics showed that majority of the respondents were aged, with moderate experience and had limited extension access. In addition, the results revealed that respondents had adequate access to market information and financial credits. The binary logit model was used to identify farm and farmer characteristics that affect adoption of technologies. Improved breeds, proper housing structures, improved feeds and disease control measures were used as technology adoption parameters. Results show that experience, household size, extension access, land tenure and income from indigenous poultry were significant and positively influenced technology adoption. Further, age of the respondents, farm size and level of education had negative and significant impact on adoption. The Cobb Douglas production function was used to determine farm and farmer characteristics that affect poultry production. Results revealed that indigenous chicken production was highly responsive to off-farm income, technology adoption and gender of the respondents. The input output relationship presented that amount of credit used, quantity of feeds and frequency of vaccination were significant and positively influenced poultry yield at constant returns to scale. The Heckman’s two-stage results show that the decision of smallholders to engage in poultry markets was highly influenced by the frequency of extension and household size, while education and expert contact significantly influenced the intensity of market participation. The study recommends that emphasis should be concentrated on policies that promote youth participation in indigenous poultry production and provision of extension and training among smallholders. Besides, there is a need to emphasize on improved land tenure and increased engagement of farmers in off-farm employment in order to increase the scope of their working capital.
Role of Information and Communication Technology and Socio-Economic Factors on Marketing of Tomatoes among Smallholder Farmers in Kirinyaga County, Kenya
(University of Embu, 2021-09) Mauti, Kevin Orangi
Tomato is produced and consumed worldwide. In Kenya, tomato is used to generate income among rural people. Despite this, the sub-sector faces numerous challenges such as fluctuating market prices, postharvest losses and inadequate marketing information. In spite of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) use in marketing of tomatoes among smallholder farmers in Kenya, there is scanty information on the information and communication technology usage in marketing of tomatoes among smallholder farmers in Kirinyaga County. The study was carried out in Kirinyaga County considering its five sub- counties. Data collection was done from a sample size of 384 households which were selected using a combination of purposive sampling, two-stage stratified and probability proportionate to size techniques. Primary data were collected using a semi-structured interview schedule. Descriptive statistics was used to analyze the extent of use of selected ICT tools in the marketing of tomatoes, the effect of use of selected ICT tools on the choice of tomato marketing channels was analyzed using multinomial regression model. The effect of use of selected information and communication technology tools on market access of tomatoes was analyzed using analysis of variance and the effect of selected socioeconomic factors on the choice of ICT tools used in marketing of tomatoes was analyzed using multinomial probit model. Based on the effect of use of ICT on choice of the marketing channels and market access in marketing of tomatoes among smallholder farmers, tomato farmers in Kirinyaga County access market information through mobile phone, radio and television respectively. The most market accessed through the use of ICT is municipal market, followed by local market and lastly city market. The most marketing channel used is Farmer-Middlemen-Consumer followed by Farmer-Broker-Consumer and last is Farmer-Direct market-Consumer. Some socioeconomic factors such as age, educational level, market distance, knowledge on ICT, willingness to pay, tomato prices, farmers’ income, tomato production affect the choice of ICT tools used in marketing of tomatoes. This study provides relevant organizational bodies and policy makers with required information that will aid in improving the tomato marketing sector through promotion of information and communication technology use in marketing of tomatoes.
Climate Change Adaptation Information for Improved Agricultural Productivity among Smallholder Farmers in Lower Eastern Kenya
(University of Embu, 2021-09) Onyango, Debra Akeyo
The effects of climate variability and change on communities are felt across the globe thus adaptation information is sought as a panacea. With the pervasive uncertainty on expected weather patterns amidst climate variability and change, sound decisions are fundamental. As a consequence, this study hypothesized that achieving increased climateinformed adaptation action requires the dissemination of climate change adaptation information. The relevant risk factors and policy domains should be particularly targeted at the sustainability of this course. This study generally aimed at determining the effect of climate change adaptation information on productivity. Specifically, the study characterized the pathways through which farmers in lower eastern Kenya access agroadvisories and the effect of socio-economic characteristics on access to agro-advisories. The study also went ahead to look at the policies that support the dissemination of adaptation information and lastly determined the effect of agro-advisory utilization on food productivity. To achieve these objectives, 400 farming households and 15 key informants were interviewed in lower Eastern Kenya. Thereafter, principal component analysis, multivariate probit regression and endogenous switch regression model were used to analyze the type of agro-advisories received through various pathways, the effect of socio-economic factors and adaptation information effect on productivity respectively. Further, document analysis, thematic analysis and mean ratings were used to determine the effectiveness of the existing policy regimes. Based on the study findings, both Information Communication Technologies (ICT) and face-to face interaction sessions are used to receive agro-advisories. Several factors; gender, age, ownership of phones and radio, occupation of the household head among other factors significantly determined the pathway used to access agro-advisories. On policies, institutional arrangements and funding were the least effective instruments supporting information dissemination. The uptake of adaptation information entailing soil/water conservation and crop/varietal adjustment had a significant positive impact on productivity. The study therefore recommends that other types of adaptation information such as environmental protection are included in agro-advisories, the significant socio-economic factors are considered in the preparation and dissemination processes, policy instruments such as institutional arrangements, expertise and legal frameworks are improved and reinforced to ensure dissemination thus access to agro-advisories in Arid and Semi-Arid Lands (ASALs) and lastly, support that enables use of information such as provision of tolerant seeds are looked into. The findings contribute to the existing body of scientific knowledge particularly on climate change adaptation information as a decision-making tool that should be mainstreamed into farm-level planning. It additionally provides a basis for drawing and reinforcing existing policy regimes towards supporting the generation, dissemination and use of climate change adaptation information to minimize the rising risks in ASALs of Kenya hence enabling farming households across the region to make the best of every season.
Communication and Uptake of Integrated Soil Fertility Management and Soil Water Conservation Technologies by Farmers in Tharaka-Nithi County, Kenya
(University of Embu, 2021-09) Njenga, Maureen Wairimu
Integrated soil fertility management and soil water conservation practices are possible solutions to persistent soil quality decline and low availability of soil moisture which are affecting agricultural productivity in the dry lands of Tharaka-Nithi County. Nonetheless, the rate of uptake of these technologies and practices by smallholder farmers has stagnated over the years despite recommendations for their use. Lack of effective communication between the extension agents and research institutions and the smallholder farmers could be among the reasons for low uptake. This study therefore aimed to evaluate the influence of communication on uptake of integrated soil fertility management and soil water conservation technologies by farmers in Tharaka-Nithi County, Kenya. The study adopted a cross-sectional survey design and used an interview schedule for data collection from 400 randomly selected farming households. The study targeted smallholder farmers in Tharaka South sub-county. Data was analyzed using descriptive and inferential statistics, using Statistical Packages for Social Sciences. In assessing farmer’s perceptions on effectiveness, a ten-point scoring scale was used to score farmer's perceptions on the effectiveness of the selected pathways. Descriptive statistics such as frequencies and means were used to summarize data. One-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was then used to analyze data where Tukey’s honest significant difference test was used for means separation. To assess the farmers’ knowledge level, 24 questions were asked requiring an answer of either true or false. Respondents scored (1) for every correct answer and (0) for every wrong answer. Knowledge index was calculated then respondents were classified into three categories. With knowledge levels having more than two levels, multinomial logistic regression was used to analyze the data. Binary logistic regression was employed to assess the influence of information packaging and communication factors on the uptake of the selected technologies. Results showed that other farmers and radio were the most available, accessible, reliable and informative communication pathways thus could be effective in disseminating information in the dry lands of Tharaka-Nithi County. Group membership, training, access to credit and farm equipment were important variables that informed farmer’s level of knowledge. In addition, Practical orientations, mode of message display, accessibility of extension agents after the introducing the technology and information repetition were among the factors that influenced the adoption of combined organic and inorganic fertilizers, mulching and Zai pits. Training was essential for mulch and Zai pit technologies, while farmer group membership was necessary for combined organic and inorganic and Zai pit technologies. Continued use of audio-visual materials was recommended, also, extension agents and other stakeholders should consider the use of demonstrations and a simple and clear message to increase adoption of integrated soil fertility management (ISFM) and soil water conservation (SWC) technologies by farmers. Policies and interventions should target technology-specific social economic and institutional determinants to improve knowledge levels of the selected ISFM and SWC technologies.
Gender Influence on Soil Fertility and Water Management Technologies Uptake among Smallholder Farmers in Tharaka Nithi County
(University of Embu, 2021-09) Ndeke, Amos Mwenda
Degraded landscapes and soil water stress are long-standing problems to smallholder agriculture in the drylands. Despite the important roles of soil and water conservation in restoring degraded landscapes and improving agricultural productivity, the technologies are yet to be adopted to their fullest extent. This can be attributed to gender-linked disparities in agricultural technology utilization. This study, therefore, sought to evaluate gender-specific choice and use-intensity determinants of soil and water management technologies and preference for technology attributes by women and men farmers. Mixedmethods approach was employed to collect two sets of data; quantitative and qualitative data. Quantitative data were collected in a cross-sectional survey using an intervieweradministered questionnaire in Tharaka South sub-county. A multistage sampling technique was employed in randomly selecting 133 female-headed households and 267 male-headed households. Purposively, across the study sites, three Focus Group Discussions were engaged to gather qualitative data on most preferred technology attributes. Using sexdisaggregated data, Chi-square and t-test statistic were employed to test the statistical significance of dummy and mean value of continuous variables, respectively. Gender influence in preference for soil and water conservation technologies specific-attributes was measured in a ten-point scoring scale. T-test was used to determine if there were significant differences between the average scores of each attribute among male-headed households and female-headed households. One-way analysis of variance was run to determine presence of statistical evidence that associated attributes average scores were significantly different with respect to household headship. Tukey’s Honestly Significant Difference test was used to compare all possible pairs of means. Gender specific determinants of zai technology choice and use-intensity were determined using the Heckman-two-step econometric model. The results revealed that, significant gender differences existed in preference, choice and use-intensity of zai technology and mineral fertiliser. In regard to preference, women farmers are more sensitive to soil fertility and information availability characteristics when considering soil and water conservation measures whereas male farmers are more inclined towards technologies that increase yields and improve soil fertility. Among women farmers, total cultivated land, access to animal-drawn farm implements, and group membership had an influence on zai technology and mineral fertiliser choice. For men, total cultivated land, group membership and access to extension services positively influenced choice of zai technology and mineral fertiliser. With regard to zai technology and mineral fertiliser use-intensity, total land cultivated, livestock densities, group membership and frequency of trainings on soil and water management were important determinants among women farmers. For men, total cultivated land and farmers’ perceptions on soil erosion were significant drivers for zai and mineral fertiliser use intensity. The study recommends that, gender-sensitive farm-level policies oriented towards farmer socioeconomic profiles are important deliberations towards choice and intense application of preferred soil and water conservation strategies such as the zai technology and mineral fertiliser.
Farm-Level Supply and Value Addition of Mangoes among Small-Scale Producers in Machakos County
(University of Embu, 2020-12-11) Musyoka, John Kennedy
Mango (Mangifera indicia L.) is one of the most suitable fruit crops in arid and semi-arid areas of Kenya. Its production in Machakos County has generally been fluctuating over the past few years, such that there is no consensus whether the production is increasing or decreasing. In addition, there is a paucity of knowledge about the quantity of mangoes supplied by small-scale farmers. Upon harvest, the mango fruit is highly perishable, therefore farmers have taken up farm-level value addition strategies to enhance the shelf life so as to improve market access. In this respect, this study sought to establish what influences farm-level supply and value addition of mangoes among the producers. The specific objectives addressed herein were; to determine the effect of selected factors on mango production, to assess the factors influencing the quantity of mangoes supplied to the market, and to evaluate the effect of selected factors on farm-level value addition. The study was conducted in six mango growing Wards of Mwala Sub-County in Machakos County. Data were collected by administering a semi-structured interview schedule to 352 small-scale mango producers, who were identified through two-stage stratified sampling and probability proportionate to size technique. Results of the Cobb-Douglas production function showed that both family and hired labour, pesticides, and manure were the main inputs that influenced mango production. Furthermore, household size, mango farming income, farm size, amount of credit, and extension contact had a positive effect on mango production, while the costs of pesticides and manure had a negative effect. Further, the two-stage least square regression model revealed that the quantity of mangoes produced, market prices, market access, extension contact, and amount of credit positively influenced the quantity supplied. On the contrary, the household head age exhibited a negative influence on the quantity supplied. Finally, the Heckman two-stage selection model results revealed that off-farm income, access to cold storage facilities, price of value-added products, group membership, extension contact, farmers’ awareness, amount of credit, and hired labour had a positive significant influence on the probability of farmers’ participation in farm-level value addition. This study recommends firstly that; the small-scale mango farmers should allocate more land to mango farming so as to increase the level of output. Secondly, farmers should adopt high-yielding mango varieties such as apple variety and apply good management practices to increase the quantity produced, which in turn will reflect in increased market supply. Thirdly, relevant authorities in the County may consider providing adequate and up to date mango storage facilities and increase extension contacts to facilitate the uptake of mango farm-level value addition among small-scale farmers.
Transaction Costs and Market Participation Among Avocado Smallholders in Murang’a County
(University of Embu, 2020-12-11) Karing'u, Kelvin
Access to market plays a vital role in poverty alleviation among smallholder farmers in Sub-Saharan Africa. Agricultural markets provide income generating opportunities for farmers in rural areas hence improving their livelihoods. Avocado fruit has a high demand in both local and export markets due to its nutritional value and industrial use. However, smallholder avocado farmers have not benefited from this increased demand. The purpose of the study was to assess the effects of transaction costs on market participation among smallholder avocado farmers in Murang’a County. Stratified random sampling was applied to obtain a sample of 384 farmers. Murang’a County was selected because it is one of the leading producers of avocados in Kenya. Findings showed that sales through farmer market organizations had the highest gross margins while sales through local traders had the lowest gross margin. Heckman first stage regression results showed that cost of information search negatively affects the probability of export market participation. Further the results indicated that factors such as years in avocado marketing, membership to farmer organizations and trainings on avocado farming positively affected participation in export market. The second stage OLS regression results revealed that harvesting costs negatively affects the extent of market participation, while factors such as farm size and farm income positively affect participation in export markets. Results of Multinomial regression analysis showed that the probability of choosing brokers was significantly affected by farm size, household head’s gender, education level of household head, time taken to collect avocado, access to extension, farm income and intercropping avocado with coffee. On the other hand off-farm income, dairy cattle kept by the farmer, intercropping avocado with coffee, growing organic avocado, travelling costs to buyer locations, farmer organization membership fees and subscriptions affected farmers’ decision on direct sales to market. Trainings on avocado farming methods, time taken to collect avocados, delayed buying of avocados and off-farm income were among the factors that significantly affected the probability of choosing to market through local traders. Farm gate price reduced the likelihood of choosing brokers and direct sales. This study therefore recommends that strengthening farmer marketing organizations is vital in increasing the number of farmers engaging in export marketing chain. Also there is a need for provision of market information especially on avocado collection dates by the exporters.
Adoption of Best Agronomic Practices, Technical Efficiency and Profitability of Sugarcane Production among Smallholders in Malava Sub- County of Kakamega County, Kenya
(University of Embu, 2020-12-11) Ambetsa, Francis
Sugarcane crop (Saccharum officinarum) is one of the important industrial crops that are major employers and contributor to the Kenyan economy. Despite the importance attached to this subsector, sugarcane production is dismally performing in Kenya. In a bid to attain self-sufficiency in sugar production, Kenya has made remarkable efforts to develop the subsector. Despite efforts put up by the Government of Kenya and other stakeholders, sugarcane production still faces low productivity, comparing the expected potential yields and the actual yield. The objective of this study was to evaluate the effect of adoption of best agronomic practices, socioeconomic factors and factory contracted services on performance of sugarcane production in Malava Sub-county. Primary data were collected using structured questionnaires from a sample of 384 farmers through systematic random sampling and proportional sampling allocation technique. Descriptive statistics including mean, percentages and standard deviation were used to summarize socioeconomic factors, agronomic practices and factory contracted services which affect efficiency, production and profitability among smallholder sugarcane farmers. Cobb-Douglas production function was applied to analyze the effect of adoption of the best agronomic practices on production. The study applied stochastic frontier model to analyze technical efficiency and tobit regression model to explain the effect of socioeconomic factors on efficiency. One way ANOVA was applied to determine if there is a significant difference between profitability of contracted and non-contracted farmers. Gross margin was used as proxy for profitability where the effect of contracted services on gross margin among contract farmers was analyzed using multiple linear regression model. Use of improved seed-cane varieties, soil testing before planting, type of fertilizer used, harvesting at recommended time and recommended number of weeding per season were found to be positive and significantly affecting sugarcane production. The results showed that technical efficiency of sugarcane farmers ranges from almost zero to 0.9829, with mean value of 0.7069, implying that an average farmer could increase sugarcane productivity by 29.31% at the existing level of resources. Maximum likelihood estimate of technical efficiency depicted that use of fertilizer, labour, seed-cane and farm size are positive and significant at 1% level in determining technical efficiency. Tobit regression analysis showed that education, farming experience, family size, credit access and extension services were positive and significant in contributing to technical efficiency. However, age of the farmer, farm distance from home and contract engagement were negatively influencing technical efficiency. Moreover, the study showed that non-contracted farmers are more profitable than contracted farmers and that profitability between the two groups of farmers is statistically and significantly different. Multiple linear regression analysis showed that participation in contracted labour services, extension services and cash credit services have a significant effect on gross margin. Based on the results, the study recommends the need to increase awareness among smallholder farmers on soil testing to guide the type of fertilizer to apply and adoption of the recommended number of times to weed sugarcane farms in order to increase productivity. The Kenyan government should formulate policies to ensure provision of quality extension services, increased credit access and education among smallholder sugarcane farmers. The need for a review of the existing contract engagement policies among sugarcane farmers is also evident in this study.
Transaction Costs and Market Participation among Avocado Smallholders in Murang’a County
(University of Embu, 2020-09-26) Karing'u, Kelvin Njuguna
Access to market plays a vital role in poverty alleviation among smallholder farmers in Sub-Saharan Africa. Agricultural markets provide income generating opportunities for farmers in rural areas hence improving their livelihoods. Avocado fruit has a high demand in both local and export markets due to its nutritional value and industrial use. However, smallholder avocado farmers have not benefited from this increased demand. The purpose of the study was to assess the effects of transaction costs on market participation among smallholder avocado farmers in Murang’a County. Stratified random sampling was applied to obtain a sample of 384 farmers. Murang’a County was selected because it is one of the leading producers of avocados in Kenya. Findings showed that sales through farmer market organizations had the highest gross margins while sales through local traders had the lowest gross margin. Heckman first stage regression results showed that cost of information search negatively affects the probability of export market participation. Further the results indicated that factors such as years in avocado marketing, membership to farmer organizations and trainings on avocado farming positively affected participation in export market. The second stage OLS regression results revealed that harvesting costs negatively affects the extent of market participation, while factors such as farm size and farm income positively affect participation in export markets. Results of Multinomial regression analysis showed that the probability of choosing brokers was significantly affected by farm size, household head’s gender, education level of household head, time taken to collect avocado, access to extension, farm income and intercropping avocado with coffee. On the other hand off-farm income, dairy cattle kept by the farmer, intercropping avocado with coffee, growing organic avocado, travelling costs to buyer locations, farmer organization membership fees and subscriptions affected farmers’ decision on direct sales to market . Trainings on avocado farming methods, time taken to collect avocados, delayed buying of avocados and off-farm income were among the factors that significantly affected the probability of choosing to market through local traders. Farm gate price reduced the likelihood of choosing brokers and direct sales. This study therefore recommends that strengthening farmer marketing organizations is vital in increasing the number of farmers engaging in export marketing chain. Also there is a need for provision of market information especially on avocado collection dates by the exporters affects the extent of market participation, while factors such as farm size and farm income positively affect participation in export markets. Results of Multinomial regression analysis showed that the probability of choosing brokers was significantly affected by farm size, household head’s gender, education level of household head, time taken to collect avocado, access to extension, farm income and intercropping avocado with coffee. On the other hand off-farm income, dairy cattle kept by the farmer, intercropping avocado with coffee, growing organic avocado, travelling costs to buyer locations, farmer organization membership fees and subscriptions affected farmers’ decision on direct sales to market . Trainings on avocado farming methods, time taken to collect avocados, delayed buying of avocados and off-farm income were among the factors that significantly affected the probability of choosing to market through local traders. Farm gate price reduced the likelihood of choosing brokers and direct sales. This study therefore recommends that strengthening farmer marketing organizations is vital in increasing the number of farmers engaging in export marketing chain. Also there is a need for provision of market information especially on avocado collection dates by the exporters.
Technical efficiency, profitability and market Diversity among smallholder tomato farmers in Kirinyaga county
(UoEm, 2020-10-26) Mbogo Mwangi, Thomas
The horticultural sub-sector in Kenya contributes immensely to the country’s development agenda. Particularly, vegetables are crucial in poverty alleviation with tomato production ranking among the most vibrant enterprises. The crop creates employment and is a source of income for smallholders in rural areas. Despite its potential, tomato production faces major challenges including unreliable markets, low adoption of modern production systems and production inefficiencies. This has been attributed to lack of adequate and reliable information to guide producers on measures of improving productivity through cost effective production systems and efficient markets systems. As a result, this study sought to evaluate technical efficiency, profitability and market diversity among smallholder tomato farmers in Kirinyaga County. The study applied a cross sectional survey design through multistage stratified and probability proportionate to size sampling procedures. Primary data were collected by administering structured questionnaires to a sample of 384 smallholder tomato farmers. Descriptive statistics were used to analyze socioeconomic characteristics and results revealed that majority of the respondents were males with the youth forming a large proportion. In addition, results revealed that respondents were moderately experienced and had adequate information regarding markets. The stochastic frontier production function of the Cobb Douglas form was used to estimate efficiency while Tobit regression model was applied to identify farm and farmer characteristics that influence technical efficiency. Results showed an average technical efficiency of 39.55% among respondents with greenhouse farmers being more technically efficient than open field farmers. This indicated that there is a possibility of improving technical efficiency by 60.45% through better utilization of resources and technologies. Household size, production systems, seed type and fertilizer were significant and positively influenced technical efficiency while land size had a negative and significant impact on technical efficiency. The input output relationship showed that area under tomato cultivation and the quantity of fertilizer used were significant and positively influenced tomato yield. The profitability of both green house and open field production systems was evaluated using a combined analyses of gross margin and net profit. The capital recovery factor was applied to determine the amount of initial cost of investment recouped by farmers annually. In addition, the independent sample t-test was used to show the significant variations between costs and profitability of the two systems. Results showed that fixed and variable costs were statistically different while the greenhouse system had better returns compared to the open field system. The Simpsons’ diversity index was used to evaluate the magnitude of diversity and producers had a mean diversity index of 47.71%. This implied presence of an opportunity to improve diversity scores by more than 50 percent if the quantities sold in each market outlet are improved. A one way ANOVA was used to assess connection between market diversity and farm prices. Results revealed that farm prices realized by the smallholder tomato farmers across different marketing outlets were not statistically different despite levels of market diversity being distinct. The study recommends that emphasis should be focused on policies that enhance production of certified seedsand provision of subsidized fertilizers since their continued application increases technical efficiency. In addition, policy interventions aimed at subsidizing costs of establishing greenhouses would serve as an incentive to motivate farmers use technologies in tomato production. Besides, enhancing contract markets would reduce the influence of intermediaries and guarantee market efficiency leading to improved farm prices hence increased returns.
Performance of Vermicomposted Wastes for Tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum Mill.), Production at the University of Embu
(University of Embu, 2019) Mochache, Miriam O.
Organic waste management is vital in minimizing municipal, domestic and industrial wastes. The general objectives for this study were to vermicompost organic wastes and assess their influence on tomato performance in the University of Embu. The study was conducted for two seasons between November 2018 and June 2019. The vermicomposting experimental design was completely randomized with vermicomposted kitchen, municipal market and tea factory wastes as treatments, replicated thrice. The tomato performance experimental treatments were vermicomposted kitchen, municipal market, tea factory wastes, inorganic fertilizer (NPK) and a control, replicated thrice. Vermicompost was applied to supply an equivalent of 0.124 tonnes N ha-1 . Data obtained was analysed using SAS version 9.4 by subjecting to one-way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA). The vermicomposting experiment means were separated using least significant difference (LSD) at p=0.05 significance level. Biophysical crop data means were separated using Tukey’s Studentized Range (HSD) test at p=0.05 significance level. T-test was used to determine the difference in soil nutrient content at the beginning and end of the study. The benefits and costs were analyzed using the benefit-cost ratio formula. Kitchen waste vermicomposts had the highest vermicomposting rate of 0.6 kg/day. Kitchen and market waste vermicomposts gave a high earthworm count of 676 and 612 earthworms per kilogram of vermicompost compared to tea waste vermicompost. Tea waste vermicompost applied at a rate of 12.22 t ha-1 and kitchen waste vermicompost applied at 22.22 t ha-1 gave significantly high tomato yields of 115 t ha-1 and 113 t ha-1 at p=0.0001, respectively. Tea waste vermicompost gave the highest benefit-cost ratio of 1.45:1. The study concluded that tea, market and kitchen wastes have a potential for use in production of high quality vermicompost that can be used as a soil amendment to enhance tomato performance. The study recommends use of tea, market and kitchen wastes vermicompost for tomato production compared to inorganic fertilizers.
Relationship between Selected Motivational Factors and the Performance of Public Secondary School Agriculture Teacher’s in Imenti South District, Kenya
(Egerton University, 2013-11) Kirimi, Florence K.
Teacher motivation is very important as it directly affects the students’ performance. The performance of agriculture teachers in Imenti South District has been low compared to other districts. This has been characterized by a decline in the agriculture subject results. This might have been contributed by inadequate teacher motivation. The purpose of this study was to determine the relationship between selected motivational factors and the performance of secondary school agriculture teachers in the district. The study used a cross-sectional research design. The target population comprised of all the head teachers and agriculture teachers of secondary schools in Imenti South District. Fifty-nine head teachers and fifty-nine agriculture teachers were randomly sampled from 70 schools in the District. A structured questionnaire was used by the researcher to collect data from the respondents. The reliability of the instrument was estimated using Cronbach’s Alpha Coefficient. Data was analyzed with the help of Statistical Packages for Social Sciences (SPSS). Descriptive statistics specifically frequencies and percentages, and inferential statistics particularly Pearson’s Product Moment Correlation were applied in data analysis. The hypotheses were tested at a 0.01 confidence level. The general working conditions in secondary schools were fair as noted by 69% of the respondents. The results also indicate that there is a positive correlation (0.444) between working condition and performance of agriculture teachers. The results also indicate that the teaching load of most teachers (59%) was moderate; however, they had been assigned other non-teaching roles. Further, the study revealed a negative correlation (-0.416) between teaching load and performance of agriculture. A correlation analysis between interpersonal relations and performance of agriculture teachers revealed a positive correlation of 0.403 and a pvalue of 0.01. The overall performance of agriculture teachers in the District has been fair for the last three years; however, this can be improved by reducing the teachers teaching load, improving the working conditions and interpersonal relations in the schools. The study recommends that agriculture teachers should make use of the surrounding community in the teaching of agriculture. Also, the school administrators should equip the available workshops with appropriate tools and equipment and in schools without workshops; the administrators should construct them and equip them appropriately to facilitate effective teaching.
Evaluation of Entomopathogenic Fungal Isolate(S) for Management of Melon Fruit Fly (Zeugodacus cucurbitae) (Coquillette)
(University of Embu, 2019-09) Onsongo, Susan Kerubo
The melon fly, Zeugodacus cucurbitae (Coquillett), is a serious pest of cucurbits, tree fruits and related crops in most continents of the world, including Africa. To manage the pest, most farmers in sub-Saharan Africa rely on synthetic chemicals which have detrimental effects to the environment and the habitat. Excessive use of chemicals may also lead to development of pest resistance and Z. cucurbitae has reportedly shown the most increased resistance to the used insecticides. For sustainable cucurbit production, alternative methods for the management of fruit flies, that are economically sustainable and environmentally friendly, are recommended to reduce overreliance on chemical usage. The objective of this study was to identify and evaluate the best fungal isolate for management of Z. cucurbitae in cucurbits. The virulence of thirteen isolates of Metarhizium anisopliae and two of Beauveria bassiana against Zeugodacus cucurbitae adults was evaluated in the laboratory. Adult fruit ﬂies were exposed to 0.3g of dry conidia, evenly spread on a contamination device and mortality monitored daily. All isolates tested were pathogenic to the adult melon fly and mortality ranged between 20 - 94% at 5 days’ post treatment. The most pathogenic isolates were ICIPE 18, 30 and 69 causing the highest mortality of 87%, 81% and 94% respectively at 5 days’ post treatment. The LT50 values of the most pathogenic isolates ranged between 4–5 days. Two of the most promising isolates were tested on pupa emergence by spraying suspension of different concentration of the selected isolates on soil before introduction of mature (last instar) larvae. The fungi was able to suppress emergence to a range of 3 to 52%. The concentration of 1 x 10 of both ICIPE 18 and 69 isolates was the most effective causing mortality of 53% and 74% respectively. The three selected isolates, were then assessed against Z. cucurbitae adults at temperature regimes of 15, 20, 25 and 30°C. The optimum temperature for all isolates was found to be 25 and 30°C. Mortality from the three isolates ranged between 28.8% and 90% across the different temperatures. The isolates ICIPE 69 and ICIPE 18 recorded the highest mortality of 82% and 90% and the shortest LT50 values of 2.61 and 2.63 days, respectively, at 30°C. However, ICIPE 69 had the highest conidia production of 90.5 x 10 8 7 ml/10 at 30°C and was therefore selected for global mapping to predict its efficacy against Z. cucurbitae using the geospatial temperature data layer and the best fitted quadratic model. The map showed that the isolate would be highly effective in the tropics than in temperate climates. Laboratory tests confirmed compatibility of the selected ICIPE 69 isolate with 7 Cue-lure, a commercially available attractant on adult melon fly. In addition, laboratory bioassay to test the potential for horizontal transmission showed that males and females exposed to M. anisopliae conidia (donors) became infected and exhibited 100% mortality. The recipients resulted to male and female mortality of 97% and 86% respectively, after 10 days of exposure, thus confirming the ability of fruit flies to transmit inoculum to other flies. It was also shown that the fungus affects the number of eggs oviposited, although the hatchability is not affected. This therefore identifies ICIPE 69 as a potential isolate for the management of melon fly with effective results at optimum temperatures and can be used together with the Cue-lure in the field set up.

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