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16S-rRNA-based analysis of bacterial diversity in the gut of fungus-cultivating termites (Microtermes and Odontotermes species)
(Springer Netherlands, 2013-08-14) Makonde, Huxley M.; Boga, Hamadi I.; Mwirichia, Romano K.; Mackenzie, Lucy; Göker, Markus; Klenk, Hans-Peter
The interaction between termites and their gut symbionts has continued to attract the curiosity of researchers over time. The aim of this study was to characterize and compare the bacterial diversity and community structure in the guts of three termites (Odontotermes somaliensis, Odontotermes sp. and Microtermes sp.) using 16S rRNA gene sequencing of clone libraries. Clone libraries were screened by restriction fragment length polymorphism and representative clones from O. somaliensis (100 out of 330 clones), Odontotermes sp. (100 out of 359 clones) and Microtermes sp. (96 out 336 clones) were sequenced. Phylogenetic analysis indicated seven bacterial phyla were represented: Bacteroidetes, Spirochaetes, Firmicutes, Proteobacteria, Synergistetes, Planctomycetes and Actinobacteria. Sequences representing the phylum Bacteroidetes (>60 %) were the most abundant group in Odontotermes while those of Spirochaetes (29 %) and Firmicutes (23 %) were the abundant groups in Microtermes. The gut bacterial community structure within the two Odontotermes species investigated here was almost identical at the phylum level, but the Microtermes sp. had a unique bacterial community structure. Bacterial diversity was higher in Odontotermes than in Microtermes. The affiliation and clustering of the sequences, often with those from other termites’ guts, indicate a majority of the gut bacteria are autochthonous having mutualistic relationships with their hosts. The findings underscore the presence of termite-specific bacterial lineages, the majority of which are still uncultured.
1H NMR-based metabolomics study on repeat dose toxicity of fine particulate matter in rats after intratracheal instillation
(Elsevier, 2017-07) Zhang, Y.; Hu, H.; Shi, Y.; Yang, X.; Cao, L.; Wu, J.; Asweto, Collins O.; Feng, L.; Duan, J.; Sun, Z.
Systemic metabolic effects and toxicity mechanisms of ambient fine particulate matter (PM2.5) remain uncertain. In order to investigate the mechanisms in PM2.5 toxicity, we explored the endogenous metabolic changes and possible influenced metabolic pathways in rats after intratracheal instillation of PM2.5 by using a 1H nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR)-based metabolomics approach. Liver and kidney histopathology examinations were also performed. Chemical characterization demonstrated that PM2.5 was a complex mixture of elements. Histopathology showed cellular edema in liver and glomerulus atrophy of the PM2.5 treated rats. We systematically analyzed the metabolites changes of serum and urine in rats using 1H NMR techniques in combination with multivariate statistical analysis. Significantly reduced levels of lactate, alanine, dimethylglycine, creatine, glycine and histidine in serum, together with increased levels of citrate, arginine, hippurate, allantoin and decreased levels of allthreonine, lactate, alanine, acetate, succinate, trimethylamine, formate in urine were observed of PM2.5 treated rats. The mainly affected metabolic pathways by PM2.5 were glycine, serine and threonine metabolism, glyoxylate and dicarboxylate metabolism, citrate cycle (TCA cycle), nitrogen metabolism and methane metabolism. Our study provided important information on assessing the toxicity of PM2.5 and demonstrated that metabolomics approach can be employed as a tool to understand the toxicity mechanism of complicated environmental pollutants.
A 24-hour ambulatory blood pressure monitoring system for preeclampsia management in antenatal care
(Elsevier, 2019-06) Musyoka, Faith M.; Thiga, Moses M.; Muketha, Geoffrey M.
The burden of preeclampsia has been a major concern worldwide both in developed and developing countries, making its prevention and management a major concern. Although motherhood is a fulfilling experience in society, it is connected to ill-health in some women, leading to maternal morbidity and mortality. The United Nations' Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 3 aims to reduce the global maternal mortality ratio to less than 70 per 100,000 live births. These deaths are caused by among other things, the emergence of conditions such as preeclampsia during pregnancy. Therefore, this study sought to implement a 24-hour ambulatory blood pressure monitoring solution for preeclampsia management, using a smartwatch in conjunction with a mobile and cloudbased application. Upon blood pressure readings from the expectant mother, an alert is sent to the assigned caregiver in order to initiate quick action. The researchers adopted a rapid prototyping approach in the implementation of the 24-hour ambulatory blood pressure monitoring system. An experimental design was adopted in the study to evaluate whether the system functionalities performed as expected. The system, which was evaluated in the context of a sample of 30 expectant mothers from two level 5 hospitals in Kenya, has been able to read blood pressure from expectant mothers' smartwatches. The real-time data is then sent to the caregivers’ smartphone, as well as an alert. The solution has shown great potential for actual adoption in healthcare systems in developing countries, given its simplicity and affordability.
454 Pyrosequencing‑based assessment of bacterial diversity and community structure in termite guts, mounds and surrounding soils
(2015-09) Makonde, Huxley M.; Mwirichia, Romano; Osiemo, Zipporah; Boga, Hamadi I.; Klenk, Hans‑Peter
Termites constitute part of diverse and economically important termite fauna in Africa, but information on gut microbiota and their associated soil microbiome is still inadequate. In this study, we assessed and compared the bacterial diversity and community structure between termites’ gut, their mounds and surrounding soil using the 454 pyrosequencing-based analysis of 16S rRNA gene sequences. A wood-feeder termite (Microcerotermes sp.), three fungus-cultivating termites (Macrotermes michaelseni, Odontotermes sp. and Microtermes sp.), their associated mounds and corresponding savannah soil samples were analyzed. The pH of the gut homogenates and soil physico-chemical properties were determined. The results indicated significant difference in bacterial community composition and structure between the gut and corresponding soil samples. Soil samples (Chao1 index ranged from 1359 to 2619) had higher species richness than gut samples (Chao1 index ranged from 461 to 1527). The bacterial composition and community structure in the gut of Macrotermes michaelseni and Odontotermes sp. were almost identical but different from that of Microtermes and Microcerotermes species, which had unique community structures. The most predominant bacterial phyla in the gut were Bacteroidetes (40–58 %), Spirochaetes (10–70 %), Firmicutes (17–27 %) and Fibrobacteres (13 %) while in the soil samples were Acidobacteria (28–45 %), Actinobacteria (20–40 %) and Proteobacteria (18–24 %). Some termite gut-specific bacterial lineages belonging to the genera Dysgonomonas, Parabacteroides, Paludibacter, Tannerella, Alistipes, BCf9-17 termite group and Termite Treponema cluster were observed. The results not only demonstrated a high level of bacterial diversity in the gut and surrounding soil environments, but also presence of distinct bacterial communities that are yet to be cultivated. Therefore, combined efforts using both culture and culture-independent methods are suggested to comprehensively characterize the bacterial species and their specific roles in these environments.
5 Infrared Drying
(CRC Press, 2010-07-26) Gikuru, Mwithiga; Nindo, Caleb
This chapter will present the mechanism, techniques, and advantages of infrared (IR) drying for various food and agricultural products. The propagation of IR radiation from a source (considered as any material at a temperature above absolute zero Kelvin) to other materials is discussed, and emphasis is placed on the subsequent transformation of the IR radiation into thermal energy for the drying of foods. The advantages and disadvantages of IR drying are briefly reviewed, followed by a discussion of selected applications in the processing of ...
Acoustical Direction Finding using a Bayesian Regularized Multilayer Perceptron Artificial Neural Networks on a Tri-Axial Velocity Sensor
(IJMEC, 2020-01) Nnonyelu, Chibuzo Joseph; Zakayo, Ndiku Morris
A two-dimensional direction-of-arrival estimation scheme based on Bayesian-regularized (BR) Multilayer Perceptron (MLP) artificial neural network (ANN) is developed around a unit acoustic vector sensor (AVS). The AVS basically consists of three collocated and orthogonally oriented velocity sensors, hence, senses acoustic waves in the three Cartesian directions while offering portability in size and simplicity in its array manifold. It is shown that the Bayesian regularized Multilayered Perceptron neural network performs well in terms of estimation’s root-mean-square error even when tested with data of different signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) after training. This is useful as it accounts for unexpected changes of received data SNR during field operation. The proposed system is ideal for applications in mobile systems such as robots for search-and-rescue operations or soldiers in the battle field to estimate the source of a sniper fire.
Action of PGL(2,q) on the Cosets of the Centralizer of an Eliptic Element
(Uoem, 2021-08-19) Kimani, Patrick Mwangi; Adicka, Daniel
Most researchers consider the action of projective general group on the cosets of its maximal subgroups leaving out non-maximal subgroups. In this paper, we consider the action of PGL(2,q) centralizer of an elliptic element which is a non maximal subgroup c(q+1). In particular, we determine the subdegrees, rank and properties of the suborbital graphs of the action. We achieve this through the application of the action of a group by conjugation. We have proved that the rank is q and the subdegrees are [1][2] and [q+ 1][q-2].
Action ofPGL (2 ,q ) on the Cosets of the Centralizer of an Eliptic Element
(UoEm, 2021) Kimani, patrick; Adicka, Daniel
Most researchers consider the action of projective general group on the cosets of its maximal subgroups leaving out non-maximal subgroupsCq+1. In this paper, we consider the action ofPGL (2, ) centralizer of an elliptic element which is a non maximal subgroup . In particular, we determine the subdegrees, rank and properties of the suborbital graphs of the action. We achieve this through the application of the action of a group by conjugation. We have proved that the rank is and the subdegrees are [1][ ] and [ + 1][ ] .
Additive main effects and multiplicative interaction analysis of genotype x environmental interaction among sweetpotato genotypes
(2009-04-08) Mwololo, J.K.; Muturi, Phyllis W.; Mburu, M.K.; Njeru, R.W.; Kiarie, N.; Munyua, J.K.; Ateka, E.M.; Muinga, R.W.; Kapinga, R.E.; Lemaga, B.
Sweetpotato is an important food, feed and cash crop in Eastern Africa. Highly stable and adaptable genotypes are important in sweetpotato productivity and evaluation across sites would form a basis for breeding varieties that are stable. Seventeen sweetpotato genotypes were evaluated for two seasons in three sites which have differentials in sweetpotato virus disease prevalence and climatic conditions in the coastal region of Kenya to determine their stability and adaptability in the region. The experimental design was randomized complete block design. Harvesting was done at four and half months after planting and tuber yield was determined. Data was analysed using the additive main effects and multiplicative interaction model (AMMI) to establish the genotype x environmental interactions (GEI). There was wide variation across the environments in the two seasons. Stability and adaptability was identified among sweetpotato genotypes. Varities Jonathan, Exshimba, SPK 004 and Kemb 10 were highly adapted across all the environments whereas Ejumula, Jewel, Jubilee, Bungoma, and sponge were stable. The highly adapted genotypes can be used as a basis for further improvement through breeding by crossing with the stable genotypes.
Adoption Determinants of Adapted Climate Smart Agriculture Technologies Among Smallholder Farmers in Machakos, Makueni, and Kitui Counties of Kenya
(2021-04) Muriithi, Lydia N.; Onyari, Charles N.; Mogaka, Hezron R.; Gichimu, Bernard M.; Gatumo, Geoffrey N.; Kwena, Kizito
The study examined the adoption determinants of adapted climate smart agriculture (CSA) technologies among smallholder farmers. A multi-stage sampling procedure was used to select a total sample of 384 households. Percentages and regression were employed in data analysis. The results revealed that 47.4% adapted to climate change using integrated farming system, intercropping, crop rotation and agroforestry. Sex (0.9%), education level (9.2%) significantly influenced adoption of the adaptation strategies. Moreover, information sources such as mobile phones (0.9%), and neighbors/friends (0.2%) negatively affected the adaptation strategies. Future policy should aim at creating more awareness through different information sources and provide local extension services.
Advances in the development of molecular genetic tools for Mycobacterium tuberculosis
(Elsevier, 2018-07) Chiranjibi, Chhotaray; Yaoju, Tan; Mugweru, Julius; Islam, Md Mahmudul; Hameed, H.M. Adnan; Wang, Shuai; Lu, Zhili; Wang, Changwei; Li, Xinjie; Tan, Shouyong; Liu, Jianxiong; Zhang, Tianyu
Mycobacterium tuberculosis, a Gram-positive bacterium of great clinical relevance, is a lethal pathogen owing to its complex physiological characteristics and development of drug resistance. Several molecular genetic tools have been developed in the past few decades to study this microorganism. These tools have been instrumental in understanding how M. tuberculosis became a successful pathogen. Advanced molecular genetic tools have played a significant role in exploring the complex pathways involved in M. tuberculosis pathogenesis. Here, we review various molecular genetic tools used in the study of M. tuberculosis. Further, we discuss the applications of clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeat interference (CRISPRi), a novel technology recently applied in M. tuberculosis research to study target gene functions. Finally, prospective outcomes of the applications of molecular techniques in the field of M. tuberculosis genetic research are also discussed.
The Aesthetic Function Of The Calypso Style In V.S. Naipaul’s Collection Of Sketches, Miguel Street
(2016-07) Weche, Michael O.; Kagwira, Stella P.
The study is based on the assumption that literary style is paramount to literary communication and the meaning we derive out of a work of literature. Literary meaning cannot therefore be divorced from literary style. The purpose of the study is to examine how the style of calypso communicates meaning in V.S. Naipaul’s collection of sketches, Miguel Street. The technique of calypso is analyzed to show its aesthetic function in the text. The main objective of the study is to evaluate the text and show how the technique is used by the writer to communicate meaning and artistic vision. The rationale of the study is based on the recognition of Naipaul as one of the best world writers and more important that though his works have received extensive literary attention, little has been done on the aesthetic function of the calypso in the text under study. The study therefore gives a new direction of reading Naipaul’s works and thus contributes not only to the understanding of Naipaul’s idiosyncratic manner of artistic communication but also to the richness of his literature. The sampled text was purposively chosen based on the aim of the study. The study is grounded in the New Historicism literary theory and more specifically the theory’s tenets that emphasize the study of literary works from a historical context.
The Aesthetic Function of the style of Masking as used In V.S. Naipaul’s Collection of Sketches, Miguel Street
(2016-06) Weche, Michael O.; Kagwira, Stella P.
The study is based on the assumption that literary style is paramount to literary communication and the meaning we derive out of a work of literature. Literary meaning cannot therefore be divorced from literary style. The purpose of the study is to examine how the style of masking communicates meaning in V.S. Naipaul’s collection of sketches, Miguel Street. The technique of masking is analyzed to show its aesthetic function in the text. The main objective of the study is to evaluate the text and show how the technique is used by the writer to communicate meaning and artistic vision. The rationale of the study is based on the recognition of Naipaul as one of the best world writers and more important that though his works have received extensive literary attention, little has been done on the aesthetic function of the style of masking in the text under study. The study therefore gives a new direction of reading Naipaul’s works and thus contributes not only to the understanding of Naipaul’s idiocyncratic manner of artistic communication but also to the richness of his literature. The sampled text was purposively chosen based on the aim of the study. The study is grounded in the New Historicism literary theory and more specifically the theory’s tenets that emphasize the study of literary works from a historical context.
Agro-morphological characterization of horned melon (Cucumis metuliferus) accessions from selected agro-ecological zones in Kenya
(Australian Journal of crop science, 2020-09) Owino, Marline H.; Gichimu, Bernard M.; Muturi, Phyllis W.
Morphological characterization of genotypes is fundamental in providing information on their genetic status to guide on their conservation and improvement. The objective of this study was to determine agro-morphological diversity within horned melon in Kenya. The study was carried out in two seasons at the University of Embu in Kenya. The study characterized 19 horned melon accessions collected from different agro-ecological zones in Eastern, Central and Western regions in Kenya. The experiment was laid out in a randomized complete block design with three replications. Morphological characterization of the accessions was based on melon descriptors from International Plant Genetic Resources Institute (IPGRI) with slight modifications. Significant differences were observed in all the quantitative traits except the number of branches and main vine length. However, qualitative variations were only observed in fruit shape, rind colour and seed shape. Principle Component Analysis (PCA) showed that fruit weight, main vine length and days to maturity had the highest contribution to the observed diversity. Cluster analysis separated the accessions into seven groups with between classes diversity of 79.20% and within classes diversity of 20.80%. The diversity observed can be exploited by plant breeders for genetic improvement of the crop.
Agro-Morphological Characterization of Kenyan Slender Leaf (Crotalaria brevidens and C. ochroleuca) Accessions
(Hindawi, 2020-04) Mwakha, Fridah A.; Gichimu, Bernard M.; Neondo, ohnstone O.; Kamau, Peter K.; Odari, Eddy O.; Muli, Joshua K.; Budambula, Nancy
Slender leaf (Crotalaria spp) is among the indigenous and underutilized vegetables in Kenya whose production is limited to the Western and Coastal regions of the country. For a long time, this crop has been neglected in terms of research and genetic improvement. *ere is therefore scanty information on its morphological diversity and agronomic performance, hence the need for this study. Field experiments were carried out for two seasons in October to December 2018 and March to May 2019. *e experiments were laid out in Randomized Complete Block Design with 29 accessions and replicated three times. Both qualitative and quantitative data were recorded from the accessions based on the Crotalaria descriptors. Quantitative data were subjected to analysis of variance using XLSTAT Version 2019, and accession means were separated using Student’s Newman Keuls test at 95% level of conﬁdence. Both qualitative and quantitative data were subjected to multivariate cluster analysis, and a dendrogram was constructed using the unweighted pair-group method with arithmetic average. *e principal component analysis was conducted to obtain information on the importance of the characters. Signiﬁcant variation in agro-morphological traits was found within and between the two species. Cluster analysis grouped the accessions into seven major classes with a between-classes diversity of 75.13% and a within-classes diversity of 24.87%. *is study sets the basis for genetic improvement of slender leaf in Kenya since the observed diversity can be exploited in selection for intraspeciﬁc and interspeciﬁc hybridization.
Agroforestry in the drylands of eastern Africa: a call to action
(World Agroforestry Centre, 2005) Zeila, Abdi; Jama, Bashir
Drylands in eastern Africa typically suffer from unsustainable land uses that have evolved in the recent past. This paper reports on how agroforestry practices can contribute to sustainable land use in drylands drawing on examples from Ethiopia, Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda, India and the Sahel. The paper also reviews other drivers of successful dryland rehabilitation programmes and examines opportunities and constraints in dryland agroforestry extension programmes. The paper concludes that agroforestry can contribute to the evolution of sustainable land use in the drylands. This is possible because it is a system that blends production (food and income security at household- and community-level) with ecosystem services. Recommendations for successful implementation of agroforestry extension programmes in these marginal lands are given.
Agronomic Performance of Single Crosses of Maize in Kiambu and Embu Counties of Kenya
(2017-06) Njoka, Fredrick M.; Kariuki, Jeniffer M.
Aims: This study was conducted to determine the agronomic performance of respective maize single crosses in different environments in varying soil and climatic zones in Kenya. Methodology: The trials were conducted at experimental stations of Kenya Agricultural and Livestock Research Organization (KALRO), Muguga South and KALRO Embu in Kiambu and Embu counties of Kenya respectively. The germplasm used in this study were 36 single crosses among 18 inbred lines of maize. The experiment was laid out in a 6 x 6 lattice randomized complete block design (RCBD) with two replications. Agronomic performance was measured by collecting and analyzing data on plant height, ear height, disease scores of maize streak virus and gray leaf spot and grain yield. Data was subjected to analysis of variance (ANOVA) using Genstat 12 program for individual single crosses. Mean separation was done using Tukey’s comparison method at 5% significance level. Results: The best performing crosses in Muguga were also the best in Embu on grain yield production with exception of cross MUL 516 x MUL508 which had a mean grain yield of 11.9 t/ha in Muguga but produced 2.7 t/ha in Embu which was attributed to other factors other than genetic makeup. Variation in yield showed a diverse genetic background of genotypes studied under these conditions. The grain yield ranged between 1.01 t/ha (MUL533 x MUL513) to 11.9 t/ha (MUL 516 x MUL 508) both in Muguga). The best performing cross for grain yield in Muguga was MUL 516 x MUL 508) while in Embu the best performing cross for grain yield was MUL541 x POPA. Data on disease scores where natural infestation was visually scored showed that majority of the crosses had a score of one confirming their near immunity status. Conclusions: For grain yield improvement crosses MUL508 x MUL688, POPA x MUL14, MUL513 x MUL114 and MUL513 x CN244 can further be evaluated and eventually released to farmers as they indicated promising relationship with yield potential compared to other crosses. Further research on agronomic performance of the crosses can be done not only in the research sites but also in other regions of Kenya.
Agronomic Performance of three most Popular Commercial Watermelon Cultivars in Kenya as Compared to one newly introduced cultivar and one local Landrace grown on Dystric Nitisols under Sub- Humid Tropical Conditions
(Asian Research Publishing Network (ARPN)., 2008-11) Gichimu, Bernard M.; Owuor, B. O.; Dida, M. M.
Agronomic performance trial involving five cultivated watermelon accessions available in Kenya was conducted at Maseno University Research Fields for two seasons between year 2007 and 2008. The accessions included three most common commercial watermelon cultivars in Kenya namely ‘Sugarbaby’, ‘Crimson Sweet’ and ‘Charleston Gray’; one newly introduced cultivar from United States namely ‘Yellow Crimson’; and one local landrace (GBK-043014) from Kaka mega district in Western Kenya. The five were evaluated on dystric nitisols under sub-humid conditions of Maseno Division, Nyanza Province in Kenya. The experiment was laid out in a Randomized Complete Block Design (RCBD) with three replications. Data was collected on agronomic characters including days to emergence, days to flowering, maturity period, and main vine length, number of branches on the main vine and fruit yield (number and weight). The data was subjected to analysis of variance (ANOVA) using SAS version 9.1 and differences declared significant at 5% level. Least Significant Difference (LSD5%) was used to separate the means. Linear correlation was done to compare the relationship between variables. Results demonstrated significant differences in agronomic performance between accessions. ‘Yellow Crimson’ was recommended to Kenyan growers as the best commercial cultivar with agronomic traits which leads to high yields. The landrace was found to contain various desirable agronomic traits which can be selected in future breeding programs. These include long main vine and extensive branching which were found to be highly correlated to yields. It is, however, highly seeded and its taste is unpleasant and should therefore be improved with regard to these traits.
Alley cropping of maize with calliandra and leucaena in the subhumid highlands of Kenya Part 2. Biomass decomposition, N mineralization, and N uptake by maize
(Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1999-06) Mugendi, Daniel N.; Nair, P.K.; Mugwe, Jayne; O'Neill, M.K.; Swift, M.J.; Woomer, P.
A major challenge in developing agroforestry approaches that utilize tree-leaf biomass for provision of N to crops is to ensure synchrony between the N released from decomposing prunings and N demand by crops. A study was conducted in the subhumid highlands of Kenya to assess the rate of decomposition and mineralization of soil-incorporated Calliandra calothyrsus Meissner (calliandra) and Leucaena leucocephala (Lam.) de Wit (leucaena) tree biomass and maize roots (Zea mays L.) both in an alley cropping and a sole cropping system. The amount of mineralized N peaked four weeks after planting (WAP) maize in all the treatments during both seasons of 1995. Cumulative mineralized N at week 20 ranged from 114 to 364 kg N ha−1 season−1, the absolute control treatment giving the lowest and the prunings-incorporated treatments giving the highest amounts in the two seasons. Total N uptake by maize, ranging from 42 to 157 kg ha−1 season−1, was lowest in the 'alley-cropped, prunings-removed' treatments, and highest in the 'non alley-cropped-prunings-incorporated' treatments. The apparent N recovery rate by maize was highest in the fertilizer applied treatments in the two seasons. Decomposition rate constants (kD) ranged from 0.07 to 0.21 week−1, and the rates among the different plant residues were as follows: leucaena < calliandra < maize roots. Nitrogen release rate constants (kN), ranging from 0.04 to 0.25 week−1, followed a similar pattern as the rate of decomposition with leucaena releasing the highest amount of N followed by calliandra and lastly by maize roots
Alternative methods of harvesting and storage of grass biomass in a semi-arid region
(Academic Journals, 2012-04-12) Gikuru, Mwithiga; Mazwiduma, P.J.; Tsopito, C.M.
Biomass is considered a potential feedstock for many renewable energy production systems and interest especially in grass production has increased markedly in the last two decades. The present work focuses on grass biomass in the semi arid regions of sub-Saharan Africa and includes the study of two different methods of harvesting and baling as well as two different bale storage methods. The results indicated an average dry matter yield of 22600 kg ha-1. The average harvesting rate and fuel consumption were 1.57 h ha-1 and 6.23 ℓ ha-1, respectively. The baling rate was 0.80 h ha-1 while diesel consumption during baling was 2.69 ℓ ha-1. Manual harvesting using scythes varied extensively depending on time of day and the quality of the handmade bales though acceptable could at times fall below standards. The open barn storage method and open barn plus tarpaulin cover storage method could be used to store bales for a period of up to 5 months with minimum changes in neural detergent fibre (NDF) and acid detergent fibre (ADF) of biomass. The average fuel energy required to both harvest and bale, the biomass constituted less than 1% of the energy that could be recovered from the biomass if used as a fuel.

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